AM-CW TLS error model and self-calibration
本文以室內標靶控制網對 Faro 880 調幅連續波(AM-CW)地面雷射掃描儀進行自率定:在自由網最小平方平差中同時估計各站外方位、標靶座標與 17 個附加參數,這些參數描述距離、水平方向與高度角的系統誤差,包含可物理解釋的項目(加常數、週期誤差、視準軸誤差、橫軸誤差、指標差)與由殘差分析找出的經驗項。13 個月內 10 組資料的殘差 RMS 明顯下降,獨立檢核點亦改善;但多數參數隨時間顯著變動,入射角大於約 65 度時距離誤差明顯增大。
本頁內容
Point-based free-network self-calibration of a Faro 880 AM-CW TLS with a 17-term additional-parameter model for range, horizontal direction and elevation angle, plus inclinometer observations and an incidence-angle outlier rule; 10 indoor datasets over 13 months.
技術屬性
欄位內容為文獻擷取紀錄的原文用語(英文),以原文為據;「未查證」表示本研究尚未讀到該資訊,不代表該方法不具備此能力。
| 感測輸入 | terrestrial laser scanner Faro 880 (AM-CW phase-difference rangefinder; formerly iQsun 880)、integrated dual-axis inclinometers of the Faro 880、total station and 900 mm Leica scale bar (independent check-point survey only) |
|---|---|
| 原文測試平台 | static tripod-mounted TLS in indoor laboratory rooms (12 x 9 x 3 m and 9 x 5 x 3 m) |
| 狀態估計 | free-network least-squares self-calibration with inner constraints on object points, estimating exterior orientation, object-point coordinates and 17 additional parameters simultaneously; group weights by variance component estimation; Baarda data snooping for outliers |
| 資料關聯 | signalised planar Faro targets (A4; A5 in calibration 1) measured by iQscene contrast centroiding; spherical observations derived from exported Cartesian coordinates |
| 時間表示 | 不適用 |
| 去畸變 | 不適用 |
| 迴圈閉合 | 不適用 |
| 全域最佳化 | simultaneous bundle-type adjustment of all scans of a dataset (8 scans: 4 orthogonal scans from each of 2 locations; calibration 10 used 2 scans from 4 locations) |
| 地圖表示 | 不適用 |
| 先驗資訊 | inclinometer observations (omega = phi = 0) when levelling is enabled; exported coordinates already corrected by the manufacturer's unpublished parameters |
| 可輸出幾何 | 17 calibrated additional parameters (6 range, 7 horizontal direction, 4 elevation angle) with precisions, plus adjusted target coordinates |
| 計算需求 | offline least-squares adjustment in the author's own software; runtime not reported |
使用設備
原文使用的感測器、運算硬體與載具(equipment)。型號保留原文寫法,連結到設備頁中同一型號的歸併名稱;角色依原文用途分為方法輸入、資料集感測器、執行運算平台、參考或真值量測(reference or ground truth)與比較對象設備。
| 類別 | 型號(原文寫法) | 角色 | 資料集 | 原文規格 | 出處 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 地面雷射掃描儀(TLS) | Faro 880 | 方法輸入 | 未標示 | AM-CW phase-difference rangefinder with nominal unit lengths 1.2, 9.6 and 76.8 m; 320 deg vertical and 180 deg horizontal field of view (monogon deflection); 1/4 resolution setting with 0.044 deg angular sampling; manufacturer linearity error <= 3 mm at 10 m; formerly sold as iQsun 880 | (Lichti, 2007, Sec. 1.1, 3.1, 3.2) |
| 全測站 | total station (model not stated) | 參考或真值量測 | 未標示 | two instrument locations, check points coordinated by intersection; mean point precision +/-0.5 mm horizontal and +/-0.1 mm height | (Lichti, 2007, Sec. 4.1) |
| 其他 | two orthogonal inclinometers (built into the Faro 880) | 方法輸入 | 未標示 | manufacturer accuracy +/-0.01 deg; residual RMS 0.034 deg (calibration 9) and 0.058 deg (calibration 10) | (Lichti, 2007, Sec. 3.1, 4.5) |
| 其他 | Faro planar targets (A4 and A5 size) | 方法輸入 | 未標示 | A4 targets on rigid backing on walls, floor and ceiling; A5 only in calibration 1; 62 to 181 targets per dataset | (Lichti, 2007, Sec. 3.2, Table 1) |
| 其他 | 900 mm Leica scale bar | 參考或真值量測 | 未標示 | sigma +/-0.002 mm; scale definition of the check-point network | (Lichti, 2007, Sec. 4.1) |
作者報告的優勢與限制
優勢
- Mean improvement of self-calibration residual RMS: 47% range, 79% horizontal direction, 59% elevation angle over 10 datasets; pooled RMS fell from 2.5 mm, 112 arcsec, 45 arcsec to 1.3 mm, 20 arcsec, 17 arcsec (Sec. 4.1, Table 1)
- Independent check against 45 total-station points (120 observations): RMS x, y, z fell from 2.3, 2.2, 1.1 mm to 1.8, 1.6, 0.6 mm (Table 2)
- Inclinometer observations cut the Zs and a2 correlation from 0.89 to 0.12 and de-correlated omega and phi from c0 and a2 despite low inclinometer precision (Sec. 4.5)
- Model formulated independently of instrument; e.g. cyclic-error terms are dropped for pulsed rangefinders (Sec. 2.3)
限制
- Only b3, b4 and b5 were stable; many APs changed significantly over hours, days and 13 months, and the author cannot tell whether this reflects instrument instability or a pessimistic test (Sec. 4.3, Table 3, Sec. 5)
- APs and accuracy metrics are coupled to instrument, target type and target measurement method; empirical terms may stem from the manufacturer's unpublished corrections (Sec. 5)
- Range residuals increase markedly above about 65 deg incidence angle, so oblique points are removed a priori (Sec. 4.4, Fig. 12)
- Range scale factor not estimated because no independent scale was included in the self-calibration networks (Sec. 2.2.1)
- Experiments only in two indoor rooms with ranges of about 1.4 to 10.3 m (reviewer observation from the set-up in Sec. 3.2; not framed as a limitation by the author)
營建工程相關證據
未在工地測試。本文顯示 TLS 本身帶有毫米級系統誤差,參數會隨時間、送修與碰撞而變動,且入射角大於約 65 度時距離誤差明顯增大;因此把 TLS 點雲當作 SLAM 點雲的參考資料時,需要考慮掃描儀率定狀態與掃描幾何(推論)。
原文驗證環境:受控實驗、獨立參考量測
報告的性能數據
以下是原文作者報告的性能數值(author-reported results),不是本研究重新量測的結果。每張圖只並列同一個比較組(comparison group,同一張表、同一組實驗設定)內的方法;不同比較組之間的數值不可直接比較,也不構成排名。
本方法共出現在 4 個比較組,合計 41 筆紀錄。
Lichti, 2007 · Table 1 本方法 30 筆
表格設定(擷取紀錄原文):Self-calibration residual RMS per dataset without and with the 17-AP model (Lichti, 2007, Table 1)
RMS rho,Faro 880 self-calibration datasets · calibration 1 (10 Dec 2004)
只並列這張表在相同設定下報告的方法;以「本方法:」開頭者為本頁方法。失敗、未執行與未報告以標記呈現,不是 0。
按 Tab 進入圖表後,用上下方向鍵逐一瀏覽各類別,Esc 關閉提示框;也可開啟表格檢視閱讀全部數值。
這些是 Lichti, 2007 在此表設定下報告的數值(author-reported results),只能在同一個比較組內對照,不代表方法在其他資料或設定下的表現。
資料來源作者報告值(Lichti, 2007, Table 1)
| 方法(原文寫法) | 報告值 | 出處 |
|---|---|---|
| Without APs | 2.4 mm | (Lichti, 2007, Table 1) |
| With APs本方法原文提出 | 1.1 mm | (Lichti, 2007, Table 1) |
Lichti, 2007 · Table 2 本方法 6 筆
資料集與序列calibration 9 check points · 3 scans
表格設定(擷取紀錄原文):Independent accuracy check on calibration 9 day: 120 observations of 45 total-station check points from 3 scans; rigid-body transformation with surveyed points as datum (Lichti, 2007, Table 2)
RMS rho,calibration 9 check points · 3 scans
只並列這張表在相同設定下報告的方法;以「本方法:」開頭者為本頁方法。失敗、未執行與未報告以標記呈現,不是 0。
按 Tab 進入圖表後,用上下方向鍵逐一瀏覽各類別,Esc 關閉提示框;也可開啟表格檢視閱讀全部數值。
這些是 Lichti, 2007 在此表設定下報告的數值(author-reported results),只能在同一個比較組內對照,不代表方法在其他資料或設定下的表現。
資料來源作者報告值(Lichti, 2007, Table 2)
| 方法(原文寫法) | 報告值 | 出處 |
|---|---|---|
| Without AP correction | 2.8 mm | (Lichti, 2007, Table 2) |
| With AP correction本方法原文提出 | 1.8 mm | (Lichti, 2007, Table 2) |
Lichti, 2007 · Text Sec. 4.1 本方法 3 筆
資料集與序列Faro 880 self-calibration datasets (all 10) · pooled
表格設定(擷取紀錄原文):Pooled residual RMS over all 10 self-calibration datasets (Lichti, 2007, Text Sec. 4.1)
overall RMS rho,Faro 880 self-calibration datasets (all 10) · pooled
只並列這張表在相同設定下報告的方法;以「本方法:」開頭者為本頁方法。失敗、未執行與未報告以標記呈現,不是 0。
按 Tab 進入圖表後,用上下方向鍵逐一瀏覽各類別,Esc 關閉提示框;也可開啟表格檢視閱讀全部數值。
這些是 Lichti, 2007 在此表設定下報告的數值(author-reported results),只能在同一個比較組內對照,不代表方法在其他資料或設定下的表現。
資料來源作者報告值(Lichti, 2007, Text Sec. 4.1)
| 方法(原文寫法) | 報告值 | 出處 |
|---|---|---|
| Without APs | 2.5 mm | (Lichti, 2007, Sec. 4.1) |
| With APs本方法原文提出 | 1.3 mm | (Lichti, 2007, Sec. 4.1) |
Lichti, 2007 · Text Sec. 4.5 本方法 2 筆
指標RMS of inclinometer residuals
表格設定(擷取紀錄原文):RMS of the 16 inclinometer orientation-angle residuals (8 omega, 8 phi) (Lichti, 2007, Text Sec. 4.5)
RMS of inclinometer residuals,calibration 9 (7 Dec 2005) · 8 scans
這張表在此指標與資料序列只列出本方法一筆,沒有可並列的其他方法,因此不畫圖,數值與出處見下表。這是 Lichti, 2007 在此表設定下報告的數值(author-reported results),不代表方法在其他資料或設定下的表現。
| 方法(原文寫法) | 報告值 | 出處 |
|---|---|---|
| Self-calibration with inclinometer observations本方法原文提出 | 0.034 deg | (Lichti, 2007, Sec. 4.5) |
來源
Lichti, 2007
(2007)Error modelling, calibration and analysis of an AM–CW terrestrial laser scanner systemISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 61(5), pp. 307-324
DOI 10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2006.10.004
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