VILENS tightly fuses IMU, leg kinematics, cameras and lidar in a fixed-lag factor graph, adding an online-estimated velocity bias to the preintegrated leg-odometry factor to absorb slippage and terrain deformation; it is an odometry system without loop closure.

技術屬性

欄位內容為文獻擷取紀錄的原文用語(英文),以原文為據;「未查證」表示本研究尚未讀到該資訊,不代表該方法不具備此能力。

VILENS 的技術屬性
感測輸入IMU (Xsens MTi-100 on ANYmal B300; Epson G365 on ANYmal C100; 400 Hz)、leg kinematics (ANYdrive joint encoders and torque sensors, 400 Hz)、3D LiDAR (Velodyne VLP-16, 10 Hz)、stereo camera (RealSense D435i gray stereo 848x480 at 30 Hz, or Sevensense Alphasense gray stereo 720x540 at 30 Hz)、monocular fisheye camera (FLIR BFS-U3-16S2C-CS RGB, 1440x1080 at 30 Hz, 150 deg diagonal FoV; SUB configuration)
原文測試平台legged (ANYmal B300 and C100 quadrupeds)
狀態估計fixed-lag factor-graph smoothing with iSAM2 in GTSAM (5 s lag), with preintegrated IMU factors and a preintegrated leg-velocity factor whose linear and angular velocity biases are estimated online (Sec. III, IV, V)
資料關聯visual FAST/KLT feature tracks with reprojection factors and lidar-derived depth; tracked lidar plane and line primitives with anchor-frame residuals; ICP (after Pomerleau et al.) against a local submap of the last 5 m of scans, added as a relative-pose factor at about 2 Hz; DCS robust cost on visual and lidar factors (Sec. IV-D to IV-F, V)
時間表示discrete keyframe states (5-15 Hz) with IMU forward propagation at 400 Hz (Sec. V, V-D, Table V)
去畸變lidar points motion-compensated with the IMU-propagated state, referenced to the closest camera keyframe timestamp (Sec. V-A)
迴圈閉合none (odometry only; authors state it can be integrated with an external SLAM system, Sec. VI-C)
全域最佳化none
地圖表示no global map; local ICP submap of scans registered over the last 5 m travelled; plane/line landmarks inside the factor graph (Sec. IV-F)
先驗資訊none in the estimator (prior survey-grade maps used only to generate ground truth in some experiments, Sec. VI-B)
可輸出幾何pose and velocity estimates: IMU-propagated at 400 Hz, factor-graph optimized at 10 Hz, ICP-optimized at 2 Hz (Table V); local elevation mapping is done by downstream modules; no exported global point cloud is reported
計算需求real-time onboard operation; timing on a laptop with Intel E-2186M (6 cores) and 16 GB RAM, lidar ICP about 150 ms per call at 2 Hz and optimization about 8.7 ms (Table IV)

使用設備

原文使用的感測器、運算硬體與載具(equipment)。型號保留原文寫法,連結到設備頁中同一型號的歸併名稱;角色依原文用途分為方法輸入、資料集感測器、執行運算平台、參考或真值量測(reference or ground truth)與比較對象設備。

原文使用的設備
類別型號(原文寫法)角色資料集原文規格出處
LiDARVelodyne VLP-16方法輸入未標示10 Hz, resolution 16 px x 1824 px(Wisth et al., 2023, Table I)
地面雷射掃描儀(TLS)survey-grade lidar scanners (models 原文未報告)參考或真值量測未標示accurate prior maps; ground truth by ICP of the robot scans to the prior map (SUB, LSM, SMM)(Wisth et al., 2023, Sec. VI-B)
慣性量測單元(IMU)Xsens MTi-100方法輸入未標示400 Hz; initial bias 0.2 deg/s and 5 mg; bias stability 10 deg/h and 15 mg (ANYmal B300: SMR, FSC, SUB)(Wisth et al., 2023, Table I)
慣性量測單元(IMU)Epson G365方法輸入未標示400 Hz; initial bias 0.1 deg/s and 3 mg; bias stability 1.2 deg/h and 15 mg (ANYmal C100: LSM, SMM)(Wisth et al., 2023, Table I)
相機FLIR BFS-U3-16S2C-CS方法輸入未標示RGB mono fisheye, 30 Hz, 1440 px x 1080 px, diagonal FoV 150 deg (SUB)(Wisth et al., 2023, Table I)
雙目相機RealSense D435i歸入:Intel RealSense D435I方法輸入未標示gray stereo, 30 Hz, 848 px x 480 px, diagonal FoV 100.6 deg; software-synchronized (SMR, FSC)(Wisth et al., 2023, Table I, Sec. V-F)
雙目相機Sevensense Alphasense方法輸入未標示gray stereo, 30 Hz, 720 px x 540 px, diagonal FoV 165.4 deg (LSM, SMM)(Wisth et al., 2023, Table I)
輪式或腿式里程計ANYdrive joint encoder方法輸入未標示400 Hz, resolution < 0.025 deg(Wisth et al., 2023, Table I)
輪式或腿式里程計ANYdrive torque sensor方法輸入未標示400 Hz, resolution < 0.1 N m(Wisth et al., 2023, Table I)
全測站Leica TS16 (called a laser tracker in the paper)參考或真值量測未標示tracks the robot; orientation estimated by an optimization-based method (SMR, FSC)(Wisth et al., 2023, Sec. VI-B, Fig. 15)
載具平台ANYmal B300方法輸入未標示quadruped, 4 legs, 12 active DoF; stock and DARPA SubT-modified versions (SMR, FSC, SUB)(Wisth et al., 2023, Sec. VI-A, Fig. 1)
載具平台ANYmal C100方法輸入未標示quadruped (LSM, SMM)(Wisth et al., 2023, Sec. VI-A, Fig. 1)
運算硬體Intel E-2186M執行運算平台未標示processor in a laptop; 6 cores/12 threads, 2.9 GHz base frequency; 16 GB RAM(Wisth et al., 2023, Sec. VII-D, Table IV)
其他Vicon motion capture參考或真值量測未標示200 Hz, used as velocity ground truth(Wisth et al., 2023, Sec. VI-E, Sec. VII-D, Fig. 18)

作者報告的優勢與限制

優勢

限制

營建工程相關證據

未在施工工地測試。實驗場域為瑞士軍事救援訓練場、英國消防學院戶外工業訓練場、DARPA SubT 城市賽道(停用核電廠的地下設施)、石灰岩礦與 Seemühle 礦坑,共 2 小時、1.8 km(Sec. VI-B)。與營建的關聯是平台層面:C11b 收錄的多篇營建研究使用四足機器人(如(Kim et al., 2022a)(Schillberg et al., 2025)(Tuomisto et al., 2026)(Chen et al., 2025a)(Gan et al., 2025)),但依 C11b 紀錄,至少(Kim et al., 2022a)使用 LIO-SAM 而非足式專用估測器。另依 C10 紀錄,VILENS 的 ICP 模組曾離線用於產生 Hilti-Oxford 與 Oxford Spires 的稠密參考軌跡((Zhang et al., 2023c) Sec. V-C;(Tao et al., 2025) Sec. 5.1.7)。

原文驗證環境:地下或隧道、獨立參考量測、跨場域

報告的性能數據

以下是原文作者報告的性能數值(author-reported results),不是本研究重新量測的結果。每張圖只並列同一個比較組(comparison group,同一張表、同一組實驗設定)內的方法;不同比較組之間的數值不可直接比較,也不構成排名。

本方法共出現在 6 個比較組,合計 84 筆紀錄。以下列出本方法紀錄最多的 4 組,其餘 2 組列在最後,並連到性能比較頁。

Wisth et al., 2023 · Table II 本方法 48 筆

表格設定(擷取紀錄原文):Mean 10 m RPE with std in parentheses; VILENS variants run at 15 Hz unless noted; ground truth ICP to survey-grade prior map (Wisth et al., 2023, Table II)

10 m RPE translation mu (sigma = 0.08),authors' ANYmal datasets · SUB

只並列這張表在相同設定下報告的方法;以「本方法:」開頭者為本頁方法。失敗、未執行與未報告以標記呈現,不是 0。

按 Tab 進入圖表後,用上下方向鍵逐一瀏覽各類別,Esc 關閉提示框;也可開啟表格檢視閱讀全部數值。

這些是 Wisth et al., 2023 在此表設定下報告的數值(author-reported results),只能在同一個比較組內對照,不代表方法在其他資料或設定下的表現。

統計量:平均值(mean);對齊方式:原文未報告;單位:m;場景:DARPA SubT Urban Beta course, Satsop WA; dark inactive nuclear power plant (ANYmal B300, 490 m, 60 min)

資料來源作者報告值(Wisth et al., 2023, Table II)

數值與出處
方法(原文寫法)報告值出處
VILENS-LVIK (ablation: adds leg kinematics)本方法0.11 m(Wisth et al., 2023, Table II)
VILENS-IR (ablation: ICP and IMU only, output 2 Hz)本方法0.1 m(Wisth et al., 2023, Table II)

Wisth et al., 2023 · Table III 本方法 24 筆

資料集與序列authors' ANYmal datasets · LSM

表格設定(擷取紀錄原文):Ablation of online velocity bias estimation; mean 10 m RPE with std in parentheses (LSM rotation row duplicates SUB and differs from Table II) (Wisth et al., 2023, Table III)

10 m RPE translation mu (sigma = 0.04),authors' ANYmal datasets · LSM

只並列這張表在相同設定下報告的方法;以「本方法:」開頭者為本頁方法。失敗、未執行與未報告以標記呈現,不是 0。

按 Tab 進入圖表後,用上下方向鍵逐一瀏覽各類別,Esc 關閉提示框;也可開啟表格檢視閱讀全部數值。

這些是 Wisth et al., 2023 在此表設定下報告的數值(author-reported results),只能在同一個比較組內對照,不代表方法在其他資料或設定下的表現。

統計量:平均值(mean);對齊方式:原文未報告;單位:m;場景:decommissioned limestone mine, Wiltshire UK (ANYmal C100, 474 m, 20 min)

資料來源作者報告值(Wisth et al., 2023, Table III)

數值與出處
方法(原文寫法)報告值出處
VILENS-NO-BIAS (ablation: no online velocity bias)本方法0.05 m(Wisth et al., 2023, Table III)
VILENS (full)本方法原文提出0.04 m(Wisth et al., 2023, Table III)

Wisth et al., 2023 · Table IV 本方法 6 筆

資料集與序列authors' ANYmal datasets

表格設定(擷取紀錄原文):Timing of VILENS modules, mean with std; module frequency given in the table (Wisth et al., 2023, Table IV)

Timing mu (sigma = 0.12) ms, module IMU at 400 Hz,authors' ANYmal datasets

這張表在此指標與資料序列只列出本方法一筆,沒有可並列的其他方法,因此不畫圖,數值與出處見下表。這是 Wisth et al., 2023 在此表設定下報告的數值(author-reported results),不代表方法在其他資料或設定下的表現。

統計量:平均值(mean);對齊方式:不適用;單位:ms

數值與出處
方法(原文寫法)報告值出處
VILENS module: IMU本方法原文提出硬體:laptop, Intel E-2186M (6 cores, 12 threads, 2.9 GHz base), 16 GB RAM0.05 ms(Wisth et al., 2023, Table IV)

Wisth et al., 2023 · Table V 本方法 3 筆

資料集與序列authors' ANYmal datasets

表格設定(擷取紀錄原文):Frequency and mean latency of VILENS outputs, latency relative to the IMU input (Wisth et al., 2023, Table V)

Mean latency of output 'IMU forward-propagated' at 400 Hz,authors' ANYmal datasets

這張表在此指標與資料序列只列出本方法一筆,沒有可並列的其他方法,因此不畫圖,數值與出處見下表。這是 Wisth et al., 2023 在此表設定下報告的數值(author-reported results),不代表方法在其他資料或設定下的表現。

統計量:平均值(mean);對齊方式:不適用;單位:ms

數值與出處
方法(原文寫法)報告值出處
VILENS output: IMU forward-propagated本方法原文提出2.3 ms(Wisth et al., 2023, Table V)

其他比較組

列出其餘 2 個比較組

來源

  • Wisth et al., 2023

    David Wisth, Marco Camurri, Maurice Fallon(2023)VILENS: Visual, Inertial, Lidar, and Leg Odometry for All-Terrain Legged RobotsIEEE Transactions on Robotics, 39(1), 309-326

    同儕審查已出版已讀全文近十年

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