SuMa performs dense frame-to-model ICP by projective association against views rendered from a GPU surfel map, verifies loop closures with composed virtual views, and updates the pose-anchored surfel map after pose-graph optimization.

技術屬性

欄位內容為文獻擷取紀錄的原文用語(英文),以原文為據;「未查證」表示本研究尚未讀到該資訊,不代表該方法不具備此能力。

SuMa 的技術屬性
感測輸入3D LiDAR (Velodyne HDL-64E S2 via KITTI)
原文測試平台vehicle (KITTI)
狀態估計frame-to-model point-to-plane ICP with projective data association, Gauss-Newton with Huber weights; pose graph optimized with gtsam (Levenberg-Marquardt) in a separate thread (Sec. III-C, III-E, III-F)
資料關聯dense projective data association between the current vertex/normal maps (spherical projection) and vertex/normal maps rendered from the surfel map (Sec. III-A, III-C)
時間表示discrete scan poses
去畸變原文未報告
迴圈閉合single candidate within a radius searched in the inactive map; ICP with multiple initializations; accepted only if a composed virtual map view is consistent with the scan, then verified over subsequent scans (Sec. III-E)
全域最佳化pose graph of odometry and verified loop closures (gtsam); surfels are anchored to creation poses so the map is updated without re-integration (Sec. III-B, III-E)
地圖表示surfel map (position, normal, radius, creation/update timestamps, stability log-odds); active/inactive partition; GPU rolling-grid submaps (Sec. III-B, III-F)
先驗資訊none
可輸出幾何globally consistent surfel map / registered point cloud (Fig. 1, Fig. 4)
計算需求OpenGL 4.0 GPU implementation with a 2D rolling-grid of submaps offloaded between GPU and main memory; test machine Intel i7-6700 @3.4 GHz with 16 GB RAM and Nvidia GeForce GTX 960 with 4 GB RAM; odometry and map update 31 ms average (max 71 ms), up to 189 ms with loop closure detection and verification, 48 ms average overall (about 20 Hz) on KITTI 00; pose graph optimized with gtsam 4.0 Levenberg-Marquardt in a separate thread (Sec. III-F, IV, Fig. 7)

使用設備

原文使用的感測器、運算硬體與載具(equipment)。型號保留原文寫法,連結到設備頁中同一型號的歸併名稱;角色依原文用途分為方法輸入、資料集感測器、執行運算平台、參考或真值量測(reference or ground truth)與比較對象設備。

原文使用的設備
類別型號(原文寫法)角色資料集原文規格出處
LiDARVelodyne HDL-64E S2歸入:Velodyne HDL-64E資料集感測器KITTI odometryprovided KITTI point clouds recorded at 10 Hz; parameters assume vertical FoV fup 3.0 deg and fdown 25 deg, vertex map 900 x 64 (Table I)(Behley & Stachniss, 2018, Sec. IV, Table I)
GNSS 接收器KITTI GPS-based inertial navigation system ground truth (model not stated)參考或真值量測KITTI odometryauthors observed height inconsistencies in the training ground truth(Behley & Stachniss, 2018, Sec. IV, Fig. 6)
運算硬體Intel i7-6700執行運算平台未標示3.4 GHz, 16 GB RAM(Behley & Stachniss, 2018, Sec. IV)
運算硬體Nvidia GeForce GTX 960執行運算平台未標示4 GB RAM; OpenGL 4.0 implementation(Behley & Stachniss, 2018, Sec. III-F, IV)

作者報告的優勢與限制

優勢

限制

營建工程相關證據

原文未報告(僅在 KITTI 城市、鄉間與高速公路資料測試;(推論)工地常見的長廊與開闊樓板等結構稀少場景可能類似其報告的退化情境,需實測)。

原文驗證環境:公開基準

報告的性能數據

以下是原文作者報告的性能數值(author-reported results),不是本研究重新量測的結果。每張圖只並列同一個比較組(comparison group,同一張表、同一組實驗設定)內的方法;不同比較組之間的數值不可直接比較,也不構成排名。

本方法共出現在 46 個比較組,合計 387 筆紀錄。以下列出本方法紀錄最多的 4 組,其餘 42 組列在最後,並連到性能比較頁。

Behley & Stachniss, 2018 · Table II 本方法 72 筆

表格設定(擷取紀錄原文):KITTI odometry training set; relative errors averaged over 100-800 m trajectories; values written rot [deg/100m] / trans [%]; * = sequence contains loop closures; LOAM, S-LSD and SOFT-SLAM values as reported by their authors (Behley & Stachniss, 2018, Table II)

relative translational error (%),KITTI odometry (training) · 00*

只並列這張表在相同設定下報告的方法;以「本方法:」開頭者為本頁方法。失敗、未執行與未報告以標記呈現,不是 0。

按 Tab 進入圖表後,用上下方向鍵逐一瀏覽各類別,Esc 關閉提示框;也可開啟表格檢視閱讀全部數值。

這些是 Behley & Stachniss, 2018 在此表設定下報告的數值(author-reported results),只能在同一個比較組內對照,不代表方法在其他資料或設定下的表現。

統計量:平均值(mean);對齊方式:原文未報告;單位:%;場景:street environments (KITTI)

資料來源作者報告值(Behley & Stachniss, 2018, Table II)

數值與出處
方法(原文寫法)報告值出處
Frame-to-Frame本方法原文提出2.1%(Behley & Stachniss, 2018, Table II)
Frame-to-Model本方法原文提出0.7%(Behley & Stachniss, 2018, Table II)
Frame-to-Model with loop closure本方法原文提出0.7%(Behley & Stachniss, 2018, Table II)
LOAM [35]0.8%(Behley & Stachniss, 2018, Table II)
S-LSD [6] (Stereo LSD-SLAM)0.6%(Behley & Stachniss, 2018, Table II)
SOFT-SLAM [2]0.7%(Behley & Stachniss, 2018, Table II)

Chen et al., 2019 · Table I 本方法 26 筆

表格設定(擷取紀錄原文):KITTI raw road-category drives 2011_09_26_drive_0015_sync to 2011_10_03_drive_0047_sync renamed 30-41; relative errors averaged over segments of 5 to 400 m (rot deg/100 m, trans %); these drives have no semantic labels, so they are unseen by RangeNet++ (Chen et al., 2019, Table I)

relative rotational error,KITTI raw (road category) · 30

只並列這張表在相同設定下報告的方法;以「本方法:」開頭者為本頁方法。失敗、未執行與未報告以標記呈現,不是 0。

按 Tab 進入圖表後,用上下方向鍵逐一瀏覽各類別,Esc 關閉提示框;也可開啟表格檢視閱讀全部數值。

這些是 Chen et al., 2019 在此表設定下報告的數值(author-reported results),只能在同一個比較組內對照,不代表方法在其他資料或設定下的表現。

統計量:平均值(mean);對齊方式:未對齊;單位:deg/100 m;場景:country

資料來源作者報告值(Chen et al., 2019, Table I)

數值與出處
方法(原文寫法)報告值出處
SuMa本方法0.38 deg/100 m(Chen et al., 2019, Table I)
SuMa_nomovable0.39 deg/100 m(Chen et al., 2019, Table I)
SuMa++原文提出0.38 deg/100 m(Chen et al., 2019, Table I)

Chebrolu et al., 2021 · Table I 本方法 24 筆

表格設定(擷取紀錄原文):Frame-to-frame point-to-plane projective ICP inside SuMa on KITTI odometry; only the robust kernel or outlier scheme differs between rows (Chebrolu et al., 2021, Table I)

relative rot. error in degrees per 100 m,KITTI odometry · 00

只並列這張表在相同設定下報告的方法;以「本方法:」開頭者為本頁方法。失敗、未執行與未報告以標記呈現,不是 0。

按 Tab 進入圖表後,用上下方向鍵逐一瀏覽各類別,Esc 關閉提示框;也可開啟表格檢視閱讀全部數值。

這些是 Chebrolu et al., 2021 在此表設定下報告的數值(author-reported results),只能在同一個比較組內對照,不代表方法在其他資料或設定下的表現。

統計量:原文未報告;對齊方式:未對齊;單位:deg/100 m;場景:outdoor driving (KITTI)

資料來源作者報告值(Chebrolu et al., 2021, Table I)

數值與出處
方法(原文寫法)報告值出處
Our Approach原文提出1.5 deg/100 m(Chebrolu et al., 2021, Table I)
Adaptive Kernel (Barron [6])1.6 deg/100 m(Chebrolu et al., 2021, Table I)
Fixed Kernel (Huber)0.93 deg/100 m(Chebrolu et al., 2021, Table I)
Fixed Kernel (Geman-McClure)1.8 deg/100 m(Chebrolu et al., 2021, Table I)
Hand-Crafted Outlier Rejection [7] (SuMa original: Huber + rejection of correspondences >2 m or normal angle >30 deg)本方法0.9 deg/100 m(Chebrolu et al., 2021, Table I)

Chen et al., 2019 · Table II 本方法 24 筆

表格設定(擷取紀錄原文):KITTI odometry training sequences 00-10; relative errors averaged over 100 to 800 m segments (rot deg/100 m, trans %); asterisked sequences 00, 02, 05-09 contain loops; RangeNet++ was trained on labels of 00-10 except 08, so this table is not held out; IMLS-SLAM and LOAM rows give translation only and their source is not stated; SuMa_nomovable Average printed as 23.3/9.24, which looks swapped relative to its per-sequence values (reviewer arithmetic), recorded as printed (Chen et al., 2019, Table II)

relative translational error,KITTI odometry (training) · 00

只並列這張表在相同設定下報告的方法;以「本方法:」開頭者為本頁方法。失敗、未執行與未報告以標記呈現,不是 0。

按 Tab 進入圖表後,用上下方向鍵逐一瀏覽各類別,Esc 關閉提示框;也可開啟表格檢視閱讀全部數值。

這些是 Chen et al., 2019 在此表設定下報告的數值(author-reported results),只能在同一個比較組內對照,不代表方法在其他資料或設定下的表現。

統計量:平均值(mean);對齊方式:未對齊;單位:%;場景:urban (loop)

資料來源作者報告值(Chen et al., 2019, Table II)

數值與出處
方法(原文寫法)報告值出處
SuMa本方法0.68%(Chen et al., 2019, Table II)
SuMa_nomovable58%有附註註記(擷取紀錄):(inference) diverged: authors state SuMa_nomovable diverges, particularly in urban scenes; per-sequence divergence not labelled in the paper(Chen et al., 2019, Table II)
SuMa++原文提出0.64%(Chen et al., 2019, Table II)
IMLS-SLAM [7]0.5%(Chen et al., 2019, Table II)
LOAM [40]0.78%(Chen et al., 2019, Table II)

其他比較組

列出其餘 42 個比較組

來源

  • Behley & Stachniss, 2018

    Jens Behley, Cyrill Stachniss(2018)Efficient Surfel-Based SLAM using 3D Laser Range Data in Urban EnvironmentsRobotics: Science and Systems XIV (RSS 2018), RSS XIV, paper p16 (proceedings URL rss14/p16.pdf)

    同儕審查已出版已讀全文近十年

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