Extends R3LIVE with photometric calibration and online exposure-time estimation so that map points store radiance, with larger-scale evaluation on NCLT and a released dataset.

技術屬性

欄位內容為文獻擷取紀錄的原文用語(英文),以原文為據;「未查證」表示本研究尚未讀到該資訊,不代表該方法不具備此能力。

R3LIVE++ 的技術屬性
感測輸入3D LiDAR (LiVOX AVIA in the R3LIVE-dataset; NCLT 3D LiDAR, model not named in the paper)、IMU (model not reported)、RGB camera (FLIR Blackfly BFS-u3-13y3c global shutter in the R3LIVE-dataset; front-facing camera of the NCLT omnidirectional camera)
原文測試平台handheld、wheeled UGV
狀態估計error-state iterated Kalman filter; state includes camera extrinsic, intrinsic, camera-IMU time offset and inverse exposure time
資料關聯LiDAR point-to-plane (GICP-style) scan-to-map against the five nearest map points in an incremental k-d tree, with a plane fitted only if they lie within about 0.4 m (VoR Sec. IV-A); VIO tracks about 400 map points at least 50 pixels apart by Lucas-Kanade optical flow, first minimizing frame-to-frame PnP error, then frame-to-map radiance error on individual map points using photometrically corrected images (CRF and vignetting); pixels at 0 or 255 are excluded from radiance updates (VoR Sec. V)
時間表示discrete poses; camera-IMU time offset estimated online
去畸變in-frame motion of each LiDAR scan compensated by IMU backward propagation (following FAST-LIO) before registration (Sec. IV-A)
迴圈閉合none (Sec. VI-D states the system has no loop detection and correction)
全域最佳化none
地圖表示radiance map: points with position, RGB radiance, position and radiance covariances and timestamps, stored in 0.1 m voxels
先驗資訊offline photometric calibration (response function, vignetting)
可輸出幾何radiance (RGB) point map at 1 cm point spacing in the implementation; offline mesh and texture via CGAL and OpenMVS with export to pcd, ply, obj (arXiv v1 Sec. 7.2; the version of record refers to the GitHub utilities, Unreal Engine export and supplementary material); HDR images rendered at chosen exposure times (Sec. VII-A, VIII-B)
計算需求CPU-only Intel i7-9700K with 64 GB RAM: NCLT mean 34.271 ms per LiDAR scan and 16.600 ms per image; R3LIVE-dataset mean 23.453 ms per scan (the text says 22.7 ms) and 16.244 ms per image; processing per second of data 426 ms (NCLT) and 470 ms (R3LIVE-dataset) (VoR Sec. VI-G, Table VII)

使用設備

原文使用的感測器、運算硬體與載具(equipment)。型號保留原文寫法,連結到設備頁中同一型號的歸併名稱;角色依原文用途分為方法輸入、資料集感測器、執行運算平台、參考或真值量測(reference or ground truth)與比較對象設備。

原文使用的設備
類別型號(原文寫法)角色資料集原文規格出處
LiDARLiVOX AVIA 3D LiDAR歸入:Livox Avia方法輸入R3LIVE-datasetFoV 70.4 x 77.2 deg; 10 Hz; about 240k points per second(Lin & Zhang, 2024, VoR Sec. VI-B1; Sec. VI-G)
LiDAR3D LiDAR (model not named in the paper)資料集感測器NCLT10 Hz, about 695k points per second(Lin & Zhang, 2024, VoR Sec. VI-A; Sec. VI-G)
LiDARplanar LiDAR (not used)資料集感測器NCLT原文未報告(Lin & Zhang, 2024, VoR Sec. VI-A)
GNSS 接收器GPS (not used as input)資料集感測器NCLT原文未報告(Lin & Zhang, 2024, VoR Sec. VI-A)
相機FLIR Blackfly BFS-u3-13y3c global shutter camera方法輸入R3LIVE-datasetFoV 82.9 x 66.5 deg; 15 Hz; offline photometric calibration (response function, vignetting)(Lin & Zhang, 2024, VoR Sec. VI-B1; Fig. 9; Sec. VI-G)
相機omnidirectional camera (front-facing camera, one of five, used)資料集感測器NCLT5 Hz image rate(Lin & Zhang, 2024, VoR Sec. VI-A; Sec. VI-G)
輪式或腿式里程計wheel encoders (not used)資料集感測器NCLT原文未報告(Lin & Zhang, 2024, VoR Sec. VI-A)
載具平台handheld device with FDM 3D-printed mechanical components方法輸入R3LIVE-datasetschematics open-sourced(Lin & Zhang, 2024, VoR Sec. VI-B1; Fig. 8)
載具平台Segway robot資料集感測器NCLTNCLT platform(Lin & Zhang, 2024, VoR Sec. VI-A)
運算硬體DJI manifold-2c onboard computer (Intel i7-8550u CPU, 8GB RAM)資料集感測器R3LIVE-datasetonboard computer of the data-collection device(Lin & Zhang, 2024, VoR Sec. VI-B1)
運算硬體CPU-only PC, Intel i7-9700K CPU, 64 GB RAM執行運算平台未標示no GPU acceleration(Lin & Zhang, 2024, VoR Sec. VI-G; Table VII)
其他ArUco marker board參考或真值量測R3LIVE-datasetreference pose when the device returns to the start(Lin & Zhang, 2024, VoR Sec. VI-B1; Fig. 8)

論文圖片

只收錄原文以開放授權(open license)釋出的圖片,並依授權條件標示出處、圖號、授權與修改方式。

作者報告的優勢與限制

優勢

限制

營建工程相關證據

未於營建工地驗證;NCLT 為校園長期資料(作者提及含施工造成的長期結構變化),自建資料為香港兩所大學校園。對工程點雲而言,其曝光一致的輻射地圖與匯出流程具參考價值,但未報告點雲幾何精度(推論)。

原文驗證環境:公開基準、獨立參考量測

報告的性能數據

以下是原文作者報告的性能數值(author-reported results),不是本研究重新量測的結果。每張圖只並列同一個比較組(comparison group,同一張表、同一組實驗設定)內的方法;不同比較組之間的數值不可直接比較,也不構成排名。

本方法共出現在 7 個比較組,合計 49 筆紀錄。以下列出本方法紀錄最多的 4 組,其餘 3 組列在最後,並連到性能比較頁。

Lin & Zhang, 2024 · Table III 本方法 26 筆

指標APE (m)

表格設定(擷取紀錄原文):VoR Table III: absolute position error (APE, m) with standard deviation on NCLT (front-facing camera and 3D LiDAR, Segway robot), computed on the odometry output at LiDAR input for every method; loop closure of LIO-SAM and LVI-SAM deactivated; photometric calibration disabled for R3LIVE++ (unavailable for NCLT); '-' = failed midway, excluded from the averages; Our_LIO column omitted. The text says 2012-03-17 and 2012-08-04 were excluded for a 100 ms LiDAR-IMU timestamp delay, yet both appear in the 25-row table. (Lin & Zhang, 2024, Table III)

APE (m),NCLT · 2012-01-08 (6495.7 m, 01:25:35)

只並列這張表在相同設定下報告的方法;以「本方法:」開頭者為本頁方法。失敗、未執行與未報告以標記呈現,不是 0。

按 Tab 進入圖表後,用上下方向鍵逐一瀏覽各類別,Esc 關閉提示框;也可開啟表格檢視閱讀全部數值。

這些是 Lin & Zhang, 2024 在此表設定下報告的數值(author-reported results),只能在同一個比較組內對照,不代表方法在其他資料或設定下的表現。

統計量:原文未報告;對齊方式:原文未報告;單位:m;場景:University of Michigan North Campus, indoor and outdoor, all seasons (Segway robot)

資料來源作者報告值(Lin & Zhang, 2024, Table III)

數值與出處
方法(原文寫法)報告值出處
Our (R3LIVE++)本方法原文提出10.8 m原文指標寫法:APE (m), printed with STD 2.7 m(Lin & Zhang, 2024, VoR Table III)
R2LIVE22.4 m原文指標寫法:APE (m), printed with STD 3.5 m(Lin & Zhang, 2024, VoR Table III)
LVI-SAM23.4 m原文指標寫法:APE (m), printed with STD 3.7 m(Lin & Zhang, 2024, VoR Table III)
FAST-LIVO13.4 m原文指標寫法:APE (m), printed with STD 2.9 m(Lin & Zhang, 2024, VoR Table III)
Fast-LIO218.5 m原文指標寫法:APE (m), printed with STD 3.3 m(Lin & Zhang, 2024, VoR Table III)
LIO-SAM21.7 m原文指標寫法:APE (m), printed with STD 3.6 m(Lin & Zhang, 2024, VoR Table III)

Yan et al., 2026a · Table 5 本方法 9 筆

指標Time consumption (ms)

表格設定(擷取紀錄原文):Time consumption per frame; proposed method component times (VIO, LO, EKF) not extracted, only their sum (Yan et al., 2026a, Table 5)

Time consumption (ms),Kimera-Multi Campus-Tunnel (KMCT) · ac2-005

只並列這張表在相同設定下報告的方法;以「本方法:」開頭者為本頁方法。失敗、未執行與未報告以標記呈現,不是 0。

按 Tab 進入圖表後,用上下方向鍵逐一瀏覽各類別,Esc 關閉提示框;也可開啟表格檢視閱讀全部數值。

這些是 Yan et al., 2026a 在此表設定下報告的數值(author-reported results),只能在同一個比較組內對照,不代表方法在其他資料或設定下的表現。

統計量:平均值(mean);對齊方式:不適用;單位:ms

資料來源作者報告值(Yan et al., 2026a, Table 5)

數值與出處
方法(原文寫法)報告值出處
This work (Sum of VIO, LO and EKF)原文提出硬體:Intel i9-12900H CPU, NVIDIA 3070 Ti, 32 GB RAM, Ubuntu 20.0427.51 ms(Yan et al., 2026a, Table 5)
LVI-SAM硬體:Intel i9-12900H CPU, NVIDIA 3070 Ti, 32 GB RAM, Ubuntu 20.0451.36 ms(Yan et al., 2026a, Table 5)
R3LIVE++本方法硬體:Intel i9-12900H CPU, NVIDIA 3070 Ti, 32 GB RAM, Ubuntu 20.0430.53 ms(Yan et al., 2026a, Table 5)

Lin & Zhang, 2024 · Table VII 本方法 4 筆

資料集與序列NCLT · mean over sequences

表格設定(擷取紀錄原文):VoR Table VII mean (with STD) of sequence-average processing time per LiDAR or camera frame, CPU only (Lin & Zhang, 2024, Table VII)

LiDAR frame (ms), mean, STD 10.551 ms,NCLT · mean over sequences

這張表在此指標與資料序列只列出本方法一筆,沒有可並列的其他方法,因此不畫圖,數值與出處見下表。這是 Lin & Zhang, 2024 在此表設定下報告的數值(author-reported results),不代表方法在其他資料或設定下的表現。

統計量:平均值(mean);對齊方式:未對齊;單位:ms;場景:mixed

數值與出處
方法(原文寫法)報告值出處
R3LIVE++本方法原文提出硬體:CPU-only PC, Intel i7-9700K, 64 GB RAM34.271 ms(Lin & Zhang, 2024, VoR Table VII)

Lin & Zhang, 2024 · Text Sec.VI-E 本方法 4 筆

表格設定(擷取紀錄原文):Robustness tests on R3LIVE-dataset: degenerate_seq_00 and 01 in front of a stairway with the LiDAR facing the ground and a wall; degenerate_seq_02 a narrow T-shaped passage with white walls; drift at return to the start (ArUco marker for seq_02) (Lin & Zhang, 2024, Text Sec.VI-E)

drift at return to the starting point,R3LIVE-dataset · degenerate_seq_00

這張表在此指標與資料序列只列出本方法一筆,沒有可並列的其他方法,因此不畫圖,數值與出處見下表。這是 Lin & Zhang, 2024 在此表設定下報告的數值(author-reported results),不代表方法在其他資料或設定下的表現。

統計量:原文未報告;對齊方式:未對齊;單位:cm;場景:stairway, LiDAR degenerate (handheld)

數值與出處
方法(原文寫法)報告值出處
R3LIVE++本方法原文提出4.1 cm(Lin & Zhang, 2024, VoR Sec. VI-E1; Fig. 10)

其他比較組

列出其餘 3 個比較組

來源

  • Lin & Zhang, 2024

    Jiarong Lin, Fu Zhang(2024)R3LIVE++: A Robust, Real-Time, Radiance Reconstruction Package With a Tightly-Coupled LiDAR-Inertial-Visual State EstimatorIEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 46(12): 11168-11185

    同儕審查已出版已讀全文近十年

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