An IMU-centric factor-graph design in which IMU odometry predicts motion for VIO and LIO and is constrained by their pose outputs, deployed in DARPA SubT underground environments.

技術屬性

欄位內容為文獻擷取紀錄的原文用語(英文),以原文為據;「未查證」表示本研究尚未讀到該資訊,不代表該方法不具備此能力。

Super Odometry 的技術屬性
感測輸入3D LiDAR (Velodyne VLP-16)、IMU (Xsens)、fisheye monocular camera
原文測試平台UAV、handheld、ground robot (type 未查證)
狀態估計IMU-centric factor graph split into sub-graphs: IMU odometry (IMU preintegration plus relative-pose factors from VIO and LIO, weighted by covariances reflecting their reliability, with a marginalization prior) constrains the IMU biases; LIO solves scan-to-map registration by Levenberg-Marquardt with the IMU-odometry prior, and keyframe VIO minimizes reprojection, IMU and prior terms; estimates use historical frames in a sliding window and proceed coarse-to-fine (Secs. II-A, IV-A to IV-C)
資料關聯PCA-based point, line and plane feature classification (linearity, planarity, curvature) with multi-metric point-to-point, point-to-line and point-to-plane ICP against the map through the dynamic octree; each correspondence weighted by how well its neighbours fit the assumed distribution, so noisy returns in dust are down-weighted or rejected (Sec. IV-B, Eqs. 5 to 8); monocular visual features tracked, with LiDAR points in the camera view providing feature depth (Sec. IV-C)
時間表示discrete poses; submodules run asynchronously in parallel, each caching constraints and processing them in small batches at its own rate; IMU odometry can output state estimates at 1000 Hz (Sec. V-C2)
去畸變原文未報告 (full text read; no LiDAR motion-compensation step is described)
迴圈閉合not used in reported experiments (Sec. V-B)
全域最佳化none in reported experiments
地圖表示dynamic octree: hash table of voxels each holding its own octree
先驗資訊none
可輸出幾何point cloud maps shown qualitatively (Fig. 6, Fig. 7); export 原文未報告
計算需求onboard Intel NUC on the DS drone (Sec. V-A); runtime benchmarked on an 8-core Intel Core i7-4790K desktop: LIO 13 to 21 ms versus LIO-SAM 23 to 102 ms, IMU odometry 0.8 to 0.9 ms, VIO 28 ms on Long Corridor and bypassed on the other runs (Table III); dynamic octree about 10% of the runtime of a static KD-tree (abstract; Fig. 8, plot only)

使用設備

原文使用的感測器、運算硬體與載具(equipment)。型號保留原文寫法,連結到設備頁中同一型號的歸併名稱;角色依原文用途分為方法輸入、資料集感測器、執行運算平台、參考或真值量測(reference or ground truth)與比較對象設備。

原文使用的設備
類別型號(原文寫法)角色資料集原文規格出處
LiDARVelodyne VLP-16方法輸入未標示原文未報告(Zhao et al., 2021, Sec. V-A, Fig. 4(e))
慣性量測單元(IMU)Xsens IMU (model 原文未報告)歸入:Xsens IMU (model not reported)方法輸入未標示原文未報告(Zhao et al., 2021, Sec. V-A)
相機uEye camera with a wide-angle fisheye lens方法輸入未標示monocular(Zhao et al., 2021, Sec. V-A)
全測站Total Station (TS) with a tracking prism on top of the sensor suite (model 原文未報告)參考或真值量測未標示trajectory ground truth for Dark-Room, Long-Corridor, White-Wall and Constrained-Environment(Zhao et al., 2021, Sec. V-A)
載具平台DS drone (Team Explorer)方法輸入未標示deployed in the DARPA Subterranean Challenge; hand-carried for four sequences, autonomous flight in Dust(Zhao et al., 2021, Sec. V-A, Fig. 4(e))
載具平台UGV1, UAV1 and UAV2 (Team Explorer robots)方法輸入未標示multi-robot mapping in the DARPA SubT Urban Alpha Course(Zhao et al., 2021, Fig. 1)
運算硬體Intel NUC執行運算平台未標示onboard computer of the DS drone sensor suite; no runtime numbers reported on it(Zhao et al., 2021, Sec. V-A)
運算硬體Intel Core i7-4790K執行運算平台未標示8-core CPU in a desktop PC used for all runtime benchmarks(Zhao et al., 2021, Sec. V-C, Table III)

論文圖片

只收錄原文以開放授權(open license)釋出的圖片,並依授權條件標示出處、圖號、授權與修改方式。

  • DARPA SubT Alpha Course 由 UGV1、UAV1、UAV2 多機器人建出的地圖,以及黑暗、濃霧、垂直豎井等情境

    Fig. 1DARPA SubT Alpha Course 由 UGV1、UAV1、UAV2 多機器人建出的地圖,以及黑暗、濃霧、垂直豎井等情境

    出處:Zhao et al., 2021,Fig. 1。授權:CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 (arXiv v2)。原始圖檔。修改:縮小至寬度不超過 1400 px,並轉存為 WebP 格式。

  • 以 IMU 為中心的系統架構:IMU 里程計與 VIO、LIO 子因子圖互相提供預測與約束

    Fig. 2以 IMU 為中心的系統架構:IMU 里程計與 VIO、LIO 子因子圖互相提供預測與約束

    出處:Zhao et al., 2021,Fig. 2。授權:CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 (arXiv v2)。原始圖檔。修改:縮小至寬度不超過 1400 px,並轉存為 WebP 格式。

  • 資料蒐集的困難環境(長走廊、白牆與樓梯井、暗室、粉塵洞穴)與無人機上的多感測器配置

    Fig. 4資料蒐集的困難環境(長走廊、白牆與樓梯井、暗室、粉塵洞穴)與無人機上的多感測器配置

    出處:Zhao et al., 2021,Fig. 4。授權:CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 (arXiv v2)。原始圖檔。修改:縮小至寬度不超過 1400 px,並轉存為 WebP 格式。

  • 粉塵序列中 Super Odometry 的地圖俯視圖與 z 向漂移圖(僅子圖 c)

    Fig. 7(c)粉塵序列中 Super Odometry 的地圖俯視圖與 z 向漂移圖(僅子圖 c)

    出處:Zhao et al., 2021,Fig. 7(c)。授權:CC BY-NC-SA 4.0 (arXiv v2)。原始圖檔。修改:縮小至寬度不超過 1400 px,並轉存為 WebP 格式。

作者報告的優勢與限制

優勢

限制

營建工程相關證據

作者資料含公寓大樓長走廊、樓梯井(受限環境)、暗室與白牆等手持序列,這些序列以全測站(Total Station)追蹤稜鏡提供參考軌跡;粉塵洞穴與 DARPA SubT Urban(廢棄核設施)序列則無軌跡真值,只做定性地圖比較與效能分析。屬既有建物與地下情境,非營建工地。

原文驗證環境:地下或隧道、已完工建築、獨立參考量測

報告的性能數據

以下是原文作者報告的性能數值(author-reported results),不是本研究重新量測的結果。每張圖只並列同一個比較組(comparison group,同一張表、同一組實驗設定)內的方法;不同比較組之間的數值不可直接比較,也不構成排名。

本方法共出現在 3 個比較組,合計 25 筆紀錄。

Zhao et al., 2021 · Table III 本方法 16 筆

指標average running time (ms)

表格設定(擷取紀錄原文):Average running time per module; submodules run in parallel so total time equals the slowest submodule; 'bypass' = VIO not run (Zhao et al., 2021, Table III)

average running time (ms),authors' DS-drone data · Dust

只並列這張表在相同設定下報告的方法;以「本方法:」開頭者為本頁方法。失敗、未執行與未報告以標記呈現,不是 0。

  • 未執行

按 Tab 進入圖表後,用上下方向鍵逐一瀏覽各類別,Esc 關閉提示框;也可開啟表格檢視閱讀全部數值。

這些是 Zhao et al., 2021 在此表設定下報告的數值(author-reported results),只能在同一個比較組內對照,不代表方法在其他資料或設定下的表現。

統計量:平均值(mean);對齊方式:不適用;單位:ms;場景:autonomous flight in a subterranean cave with heavy dust

資料來源作者報告值(Zhao et al., 2021, Table III)

數值與出處
方法(原文寫法)報告值出處
Super Odometry LIO submodule本方法原文提出硬體:desktop PC, 8-core Intel Core i7-4790K21 ms(Zhao et al., 2021, Table III)
Super Odometry VIO submodule本方法原文提出硬體:desktop PC, 8-core Intel Core i7-4790K無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):bypass (as printed in Table III; VIO submodule bypassed in this run)(Zhao et al., 2021, Table III)
Super Odometry IMU odometry submodule本方法原文提出硬體:desktop PC, 8-core Intel Core i7-4790K0.8 ms(Zhao et al., 2021, Table III)
Ours (Super Odometry, total = slowest parallel submodule)本方法原文提出硬體:desktop PC, 8-core Intel Core i7-4790K21 ms(Zhao et al., 2021, Table III)
LIO-SAM硬體:desktop PC, 8-core Intel Core i7-4790K102 ms(Zhao et al., 2021, Table III)

Zhao et al., 2021 · Table II 本方法 8 筆

表格設定(擷取紀錄原文):Translational ATE computed with evo against total-station prism trajectory; odometry only, no loop closing (Zhao et al., 2021, Table II)

ATE (in m) Transl. MAX,authors' DS-drone sensor-suite data (hand-carried) · Constrained environments

只並列這張表在相同設定下報告的方法;以「本方法:」開頭者為本頁方法。失敗、未執行與未報告以標記呈現,不是 0。

按 Tab 進入圖表後,用上下方向鍵逐一瀏覽各類別,Esc 關閉提示框;也可開啟表格檢視閱讀全部數值。

這些是 Zhao et al., 2021 在此表設定下報告的數值(author-reported results),只能在同一個比較組內對照,不代表方法在其他資料或設定下的表現。

統計量:最大值(max);對齊方式:原文未報告;單位:m;場景:hand-carried walk in a stair shaft

資料來源作者報告值(Zhao et al., 2021, Table II)

數值與出處
方法(原文寫法)報告值出處
LOAM0.779 m(Zhao et al., 2021, Table II)
LIO-SAM1.914 m(Zhao et al., 2021, Table II)
VINS (VINS-Mono)0.907 m(Zhao et al., 2021, Table II)
VINS-Depth (authors' depth-enhanced VINS [20])0.972 m(Zhao et al., 2021, Table II)
Ours (Super Odometry)本方法原文提出0.609 m(Zhao et al., 2021, Table II)

Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025 · Table 3 本方法 1 筆

指標Result (run outcome)

資料集與序列Luleå SubT tunnel dataset (Koval et al. 2022)

表格設定(擷取紀錄原文):Run outcome ('Result' column) of each reviewed LiDAR-based and combined method on the Luleå tunnel test dataset; '*' marks incompatible with VLP-16, '+' marks not integrated with ROS; some rows combine two methods (Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)

Result (run outcome),Luleå SubT tunnel dataset (Koval et al. 2022)

只並列這張表在相同設定下報告的方法;以「本方法:」開頭者為本頁方法。失敗、未執行與未報告以標記呈現,不是 0。

  • 未執行
  • 失敗
  • 未報告(沒有數值,不是 0)

按 Tab 進入圖表後,用上下方向鍵逐一瀏覽各類別,Esc 關閉提示框;也可開啟表格檢視閱讀全部數值。

這些是 Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025 在此表設定下報告的數值(author-reported results),只能在同一個比較組內對照,不代表方法在其他資料或設定下的表現。

統計量:原文未報告;對齊方式:未對齊;單位:無單位;場景:underground tunnel

資料來源作者報告值(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)

數值與出處
方法(原文寫法)報告值出處
LOAM and A-LOAM無數值未報告註記(擷取紀錄):success (row covers LOAM and A-LOAM; A-LOAM is the variant discussed in the results)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
LOAM-Livox無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (incompatible with VLP-16)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
F-LOAM無數值未報告註記(擷取紀錄):success(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
LeGO-LOAM無數值未報告註記(擷取紀錄):success(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
ISC-LOAM無數值失敗註記(擷取紀錄):failed (trajectory estimation)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
SC-LeGO-LOAM無數值未報告註記(擷取紀錄):success(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
Optimized-SC-F-LOAM無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (incompatible with the testing dataset)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
PIN-SLAM無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (not integrated with ROS)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
M-LOAM無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (incompatible with VLP-16)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
MULLS無數值失敗註記(擷取紀錄):failed (trajectory estimation)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
LOL無數值失敗註記(擷取紀錄):failed (trajectory estimation)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
SegMap無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (authors could not run the code)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
SuMa++無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (authors could not run the code)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
SuMa無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (authors could not run the code)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
IMLS-SLAM無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (no publicly available repository)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
HDL-Graph-SLAM無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (incompatible with VLP-16)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
LIOM無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (inconsistent repository)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
LIO-SAM無數值未報告註記(擷取紀錄):success(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
LINS無數值未報告註記(擷取紀錄):success(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
LiLi-OM無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (incompatible with VLP-16)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
Fast-LIO 1無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (repository no longer available)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
Fast-LIO 2 and SC-Fast-LIO 2無數值未報告註記(擷取紀錄):success (row covers Fast-LIO 2 and its Scan Context variant)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
D-LIOM無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (inconsistent repository)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
Hand-held mobile mapping無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (not integrated with ROS)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
HectorGrapher無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (inconsistent repository)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
Cartographer無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (authors could not run the code)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
LOCUS and LOCUS 2無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (authors could not run the code)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
CamVox無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (incompatible with VLP-16)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
LVI-SAM無數值未報告註記(擷取紀錄):success(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
R2LIVE無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (incompatible with VLP-16)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
R3LIVE無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (incompatible with VLP-16)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
FAST-LIVO(s)無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (incompatible with VLP-16)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
LIMO無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (authors could not run the code)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
DV-LOAM無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (inconsistent repository)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
DVL-SLAM無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (inconsistent repository)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
Multiverse Odometry無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (inconsistent repository)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)
Super Odometry本方法無數值未執行註記(擷取紀錄):未執行 (no publicly available repository)(Ghadimzadeh Alamdari et al., 2025, Table 3)

來源

  • Zhao et al., 2021

    Shibo Zhao, Hengrui Zhang, Peng Wang, Lucas Nogueira, Sebastian Scherer(2021)Super Odometry: IMU-centric LiDAR-Visual-Inertial Estimator for Challenging Environments2021 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS), pp. 8729-8736

    同儕審查已出版已讀全文近十年查證後修正

回到方法圖鑑

選擇開啟Esc關閉